GMOScience has developed a comprehensive body of work under the “Got REAL Milk” series, centered on our 2024 study examining toxic metals in infant formulas. This series explores issues related to toxic metal contaminants affecting infant nutrition and the health impacts of the exposures in children, as well as regulatory perspectives from agencies such as the FDA, EPA, and the California Department of Public Health.
In compiling this information, it was noted that certain citations and data points previously accessible on official regulatory websites have since been removed without public clarification. To maintain transparency and rigor, I am providing this updated list of references and citations, which forms the scientific foundation for our investigative articles on infant feeding and environmental toxicology.
Additional references and resources will be updated on an on-going basis.
- A History of Infant Feeding
PMCID: PMC2684040 PMID: 20190854
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2684040 - A Narrative Review of Toxic Heavy Metal Content of Infant and Toddler Foods and Evaluation of United States Policy
PMCID: PMC9271943 PMID: 35832055
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9271943/ - Heavy Metals and Human Health: Possible Exposure Pathways and the Competition for Protein Binding Sites
PMCID: PMC8511997 PMID: 34641604
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8511997/ - An assessment of heavy metal level in infant formula on the market in Turkey and the hazard index
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104258
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0889157521004580 - Determination of lead, cadmium and arsenic in infant formula in the Lebanese market
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107750
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713520306666 - Determination of toxic elements in infant formulae by using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2009.03.025
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027869150900132X - Best Organic Baby Formulas 2025: Expert Reviews – Mommyhood 101
https://mommyhood101.com/best-organic-baby-formula - FDA Total Diet Study (TDS) FY2018-FY2020 Report Supplement: Summary of Analytical Results – Reported on 4 infant formulas
https://www.fda.gov/media/159751/download?attachment - FDA Total Diet Study
https://www.fda.gov/food/reference-databases-and-monitoring-programs-food/fda-total-diet-study-tds - EPA Summary The Toxic Substances Control Act
https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-toxic-substances-control-act - Exposure routes and health effects of heavy metals on children
PMID: 30941546 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-019-00193-5
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30941546/ - Long-Term National Strategy to Increase the Resiliency of the U.S. Infant Formula Market
https://www.fda.gov/food/infant-formula-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/long-term-national-strategy-increase-resiliency-us-infant-formula-market - FDA Infant Formula Spotlight, Jan. 10, 2025
https://www.fda.gov/food/resources-you-food/infant-formula - FDA NEWS RELEASE: HHS, FDA Announce Operation Stork Speed to Expand Options for Safe, Reliable, and Nutritious Infant Formula for American Families; Mar. 18, 2025
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/hhs-fda-announce-operation-stork-speed-expand-options-safe-reliable-and-nutritious-infant-formula? - Handling Infant Formula Safely: What You Need to Know
https://www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/handling-infant-formula-safely-what-you-need-know - Food Safety for infants and Toddlers
https://www.fda.gov/food/people-risk-foodborne-illness/food-safety-infants-toddlers - FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION COMPLIANCE PROGRAM MANUAL PROGRAM 7321.006
CHAPTER 21 – FOOD COMPOSITION, STANDARDS, LABELING, AND ECONOMICS
https://www.fda.gov/media/71695/download?attachment - Aluminum and Glyphosate Can Synergistically Induce Pineal Gland Pathology: Connection to Gut Dysbiosis and Neurological Disease
DOI: 10.4236/as.2015.61005
https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=53106 - Environmental toxicants and infant mortality in America. Peertechz Journal of Biological Research and Development, 1(1), 36-61. Article · November 2016
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Kennedy-40/publication/333582853_Environmental_toxicants_and_infant_mortality_in_America_Peertechz_Journal_of_Biological_Research_and_Development_11_36-61/links/5d111f6592851cf440492ee1/Environmental-toxicants-and-infant-mortality-in-America-Peertechz-Journal-of-Biological-Research-and-Development-11-36-61.pdf - EWG’s Guide to Infant Formula and Baby Bottles; Dec. 5 2007
https://www.ewg.org/research/ewgs-guide-infant-formula-and-baby-bottles - Safe, Non-Toxic Baby Formula Free Of Heavy Metals; May 19, 2022
https://www.inonaround.org/baby-formula/ - California Dept. of Public Health; Infant Formula; May 24, 2023
https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CFH/Pages/Infant-Formula-Availability/Infant-Formula-Availability.aspx - AB-899 Food safety: baby food.(2023-2024): CA Bill did not include infant formula
https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billCompareClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240AB899&showamends=false - Exposure to Aluminum, Cadmium, and Mercury and Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 12 Oct 2020, 33(11):2699-2718; https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00167
https://europepmc.org/article/MED/32990432 - DA: Agricultural Biotechnology; July 9, 2024;
https://www.fda.gov/food/consumers/agricultural-biotechnology - FDA: Enforcement Discretion to Manufacturers to Increase Infant Formula Supplies; Feb. 13, 2025.
https://www.fda.gov/food/infant-formula-guidance-documents-regulatory-information/enforcement-discretion-manufacturers-increase-infant-formula-supplies#regular - Prenatal Mercury Exposure and Neurodevelopment up to the Age of 5 Years: A Systematic Review
PMCID: PMC8871549 PMID: 35206164
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8871549/ - Fetal and postnatal metal dysregulation in autism
PMCID: PMC5461492 PMID: 28569757
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5461492/ - Lead and mercury exposures: interpretation and action
PMCID: PMC1764574 PMID: 17200393
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1764574/ - Lead and cadmium contamination in a large sample of United States infant formulas and baby foods
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.026
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969718334442 - FDA Releases Action Plan for Reducing Exposure to Toxic Elements from Foods for Babies, Young Children; April 8, 2021
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-releases-action-plan-reducing-exposure-toxic-elements-foods-babies-young-children - Supplementation of Infant Formula with Probiotics, Prebiotics, DHA & ARA: A Systematic Review; August 10, 2014
https://sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/10.11648/j.jfns.20140204.24 - NIH: Infant Formula: Evaluating the Safety of New Ingredients: National Academies Press 2004
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215837/ - A comprehensive review on infant formula: nutritional and functional constituents, recent trends in processing and its impact on infants’ gut microbiota; PMC10320619 PMID: 37415910
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10320619/ - Nourishing Traditions; Bringing Up Baby; Jan 8, 2017
https://nourishingtraditions.com/bringing-baby-part-1/ - What Do We Know of Childhood Exposures to Metals (Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury) in Emerging Market Countries?
PMC3556434 PMID: 23365584
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3556434/ - Prenatal exposure to mixtures of heavy metals and neurodevelopment in infants at 6 months
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109122
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001393512030013X - Association of blood heavy metals with developmental delays and health status in children
PMCID: PMC5333623 PMID: 28252669
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5333623/ - Impact of Infant Growth and Physiology on Heavy Metal Toxicity
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-68740-2_4 - Heavy metals and neurodevelopment of children in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review: March 31, 202
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265536
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371journal.pone.0265536 - Effects of Heavy Metals on the Health of Pregnant Women and Fetus: A Review; January 2020
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338750193_Effects_of_Heavy_Metals_on_the_Health_of_Pregnant_Women_and_Fetus_A_Review - Daily intake of heavy metals by infants through milk and milk products
PMID: 10231985 DOI: 10.1016/s0048-9697(99)00018-2
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10231985/
